Not nearly as rare or as arduous to produce as imperial purple, red’s early history was fraught with just as many challenges. Many centuries and conquests passed before a practicable pigment could offer the desired vibrancy without noticeable fading.
The first reds used by ancient civilizations were acquired directly from the soil. The earth’s crust during the Pangaea period had a red cast due to high concentrations of iron oxide (red ocher) and manganese. During the Upper Palaeolithic period (15,000 BC) cave paintings found in Lascaux France reinforces the theory that the color was taken from the local soil. The Egyptians were masters in creating a range of hues for their tombs, statues, papyrus and domestic objects. To create red pigment, they used realgar (ruby sulphur) and/or red ocher. When it came to plants, vegetation like that of the madder plant was used for garment dying. Madder was a common source that was used up until the 19th century by Great Britain as an inexpensive dying solution for infantry uniforms (a.k.a. red coats).
From the west and northern parts of Europe, to North Africa and the Middle East, the Roman Empire assimilated populations and pigment knowledge. This storehouse of information was extremely helpful when consistent results were needed for showcase interior mural paintings. The practice of applying cinnabar red on the inside of homes created drama while signifying wealth to the observer. It took great skill to process the cinnabar (mineral) used to create vivid red pigments that stood the test-of-time. If not manufactured properly, the paint had the potential to turn black when exposed to light.
The quest to find a garment dye stable enough to handle multiple washings without fading was elusive up until the 1520’s.
In 1518 Hernán Cortés’s arrived in Mexico to establish settlements on behalf of Spain. This lead to the eventual discovery of cochineal (koch-i-neel) and the beautiful results it produced.
For centuries red carmine was made from the blood of insects. Inca and Aztecs perfected the technique of harvesting the cochineal beetle or “grana” or “grana cochinilla” from the spiny branches of cacti (Opuntia ficus-indica, most commonly known as the prickly pear). To prevent infection from touching the cochineal or cactus directly, sticks were used to scrape the insect off the cactus for harvesting and were later dried in the sun or placed inside ovens to speed the process. Approximately 70,000 dried insects were needed for crushing in order to make one pound of dye.
The eventual export of cochineal to Europe forced the discontinuation of numerous red dyestuffs that had been used for generations. Nothing could match cochineal's saturation and longevity.
By the mid 16th century tons of dried incests made there way from the Americas to Spain. Spain’s desire to remain a dominating world power needed financing, and the Spanish crown used cochineal along with gold and silver from the New World to accomplish this, while creating a trade monopoly over the dye.
With the discovery of synthetic dyes in 1900, low demand for cochineal nearly wiped out its need. By the middle of the 1960’s a shift towards the growing interest of natural foodstuffs began. With reports of cancer being linked to dyestuffs such as Red No. 2 (though laboratory testing), cochineal began to make a comeback. Because cochineal is not just limited to red (it can create a variety of colors from shades of red to purple, pink and orange), its application to food and cosmetics made it a preferred choice. Today cochineal is sold in its dried form, powdered (free of legs), and in liquid.
For more information on the fascinating history of this color, the book A Perfect Red by Amy Greenfield does a wonderful job of satisfying the curious through exhaustive research in an accessible recounting.
The first reds used by ancient civilizations were acquired directly from the soil. The earth’s crust during the Pangaea period had a red cast due to high concentrations of iron oxide (red ocher) and manganese. During the Upper Palaeolithic period (15,000 BC) cave paintings found in Lascaux France reinforces the theory that the color was taken from the local soil. The Egyptians were masters in creating a range of hues for their tombs, statues, papyrus and domestic objects. To create red pigment, they used realgar (ruby sulphur) and/or red ocher. When it came to plants, vegetation like that of the madder plant was used for garment dying. Madder was a common source that was used up until the 19th century by Great Britain as an inexpensive dying solution for infantry uniforms (a.k.a. red coats).
From the west and northern parts of Europe, to North Africa and the Middle East, the Roman Empire assimilated populations and pigment knowledge. This storehouse of information was extremely helpful when consistent results were needed for showcase interior mural paintings. The practice of applying cinnabar red on the inside of homes created drama while signifying wealth to the observer. It took great skill to process the cinnabar (mineral) used to create vivid red pigments that stood the test-of-time. If not manufactured properly, the paint had the potential to turn black when exposed to light.The quest to find a garment dye stable enough to handle multiple washings without fading was elusive up until the 1520’s.
For centuries red carmine was made from the blood of insects. Inca and Aztecs perfected the technique of harvesting the cochineal beetle or “grana” or “grana cochinilla” from the spiny branches of cacti (Opuntia ficus-indica, most commonly known as the prickly pear). To prevent infection from touching the cochineal or cactus directly, sticks were used to scrape the insect off the cactus for harvesting and were later dried in the sun or placed inside ovens to speed the process. Approximately 70,000 dried insects were needed for crushing in order to make one pound of dye.
The eventual export of cochineal to Europe forced the discontinuation of numerous red dyestuffs that had been used for generations. Nothing could match cochineal's saturation and longevity.
By the mid 16th century tons of dried incests made there way from the Americas to Spain. Spain’s desire to remain a dominating world power needed financing, and the Spanish crown used cochineal along with gold and silver from the New World to accomplish this, while creating a trade monopoly over the dye.
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| Crushed bug reveals color. |
For more information on the fascinating history of this color, the book A Perfect Red by Amy Greenfield does a wonderful job of satisfying the curious through exhaustive research in an accessible recounting.